7. The Louisiana Purchase.
In hindsight, it is perhaps easy to say that the Louisiana Purchase was no real loss for France and an amazing and easy gain for the young United States. What claims the French did have on the region were weakly held by only small number of settlers in the swampy bayous around New Orleans and the small frontier city of St. Louis. The only other French residents of the entire territory were scattered, highly independent fur trappers. The United States, on the other hand, had settlers that were steadily pushing past the Appalachians and down into the Ohio river watershed. Kentucky, in fact, had already become a state in 1792, followed by Tennessee in 1796. People were on the move, France needed every coin they could get to make sure it could properly dominate Europe, and thus surely the opportunity was clear and present for both nations to act upon. Rather, the reality of the situation was far more complicated.
France had just reacquired Louisiane from the Spanish under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, an agreement clearly made under duress, as Napoleon had Spain under his boot at the time. In 1801, Napoleon began committing troops to New Orleans, which understandably made the United States nervous. Napoleons intentions were unclear; the army could have been staged there in an attempt to march on Mexico (which was not included under the terms of the treaty with Spain), or just as likely could have been sent to prepare for an advance to retake Saint-Domingue from Toussaint Louverture. The American perspective, however, was that France, an uneasy ally, might be ready to invade the United States, if only to keep the young nation from siding with Britain against them. Even if they were not going to invade, having New Orleans serve as a road block to American commerce down the Mississippi was simply not going to do. The Spanish revoked port rights to the city for American traders back in 1798, and even though they renewed rights in 1801 (The French takeover was secret, and the Spanish nominally retained control of Louisiane until three weeks before the American purchase), there was no guarantee that the city would remain "free".
President Thomas Jefferson thus sent James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston off to France to try to secure New Orleans. They were prepared to offer 10 million dollars for the city, and were thus completely shocked when the French offered to sell them everything from the river delta clear to the headwaters of the Missouri river for 15 million. Napoleon, you see, had failed to retake Saint-Domingue (now called Haiti), and the loss of sugar revenue made the North American lands look a bit less affordable and attractive. He knew that he could not fight off Britain or the United States for control of the territory, if push came to shove; world empire meant little when Europe itself was at stake. The problem was that in those days, not everyone in the United States was sold on rapid expansion, and the country was left with the haunting recommendations, by Washington himself, not to fool around in foreign affairs and to be content with what was won from Britain. The Federalists were worried about war with Spain (it was most likely still theirs, secret "treaty" or no), to say nothing of making life difficult with Britain. Frontier settlers, furthermore, seemed worlds apart from the placid mercantile society of the eastern seaboard; why tyrannize settlers further west who had their own values and their own right to government? The call to frontier, however, had always been in the hearts of North American settlers (including native peoples who walked the dry bottom of the Bering straits so long before), and overpowered such objections.
Jefferson certainly had the confidence to send his men to France in the first place, and had no issue with them taking this new and improved deal. Congress, in the end, agreed with him, and ratified the treaty, which forever changed the face of the continent. All of a sudden, the Ohio river stopped looking so far away to Americans. Maybe the United States was meant to be something bigger than an Atlantic nation, and the concept of "sea to shining sea" first became a reality. The impact of this would not be felt by Canada or Mexico for some time, but the foundations for boundaries and relationships were already being laid even before they would become countries. Canadians, with as little sense of nationhood as they had at the time, started to become concerned that what they did have might now look far more appealing to a neighboring country that had just managed to double in size. Mexicans, though still under a Spanish flag, suddenly acquired a new neighbor. Native peoples, needless to say, would start encountering English speaking Caucasians in ever increasing numbers, who would change their world forever. Hindsight tells us that yes, obviously, the United States expanded and did pretty well in the deal. History tells us, however, that it came down to a fortunate set of circumstances, and a choice between remaining in a secure past or venturing into an uncertain future.
6. The Siege of Vicksburg.
In hindsight (yet again), the Union had a great industrial war machine and a righteous cause that surely meant the Confederacy could not prevail against it. The defeat at Manassas and the thrusts made by the Confederates into Maryland, and at the same time of this battle, Pennsylvania, were prolonging the conflict that would inevitably end with the triumph of the Union and all that it stood for. In reality, the war was a savage conflict that took many lives and cut a very deep scar into the heart of the United States in so many ways. The Siege of Vicksburg, and the campaign that led up to it, was certainly proof of this. As if he needed to prove himself further, Grant had to take the city in order to finally divide the Confederacy in two, and decisively take the Mississippi. The problem was, Vicksburg was a real fortress of a city, surrounded by extensive defenses and situated on some of the highest ground anywhere in the region. On top of this, Mississippi's subtropical climate was living up true to its name, and if you think fighting in 95 degree weather with as much humidity is hard, try doing so in the midst of a bunch of decaying corpses baking under that southern sun.
The thing about Grant was that while he was every bit a capable commander with a good grasp on strategy, he was perhaps far more valuable for his dogged determination and iron fortitude. He was also a pretty decent man. He did not have much in the way of wealth until later in life, actually believed in civil rights, and though he fought in the Mexican-American war, had misgivings about the nature of that conflict. When he fought at Vicksburg, he was most likely doing far more than trying to win a mere battle. To take the fortress city of the Mississippi would be to put the Confederacy on the defensive, and he certainly knew it. John C. Pemberton knew it too, and he certainly knew that once Grant got a hold of you, he did not let go. Vicksburg was sieged after initial assaults had failed to take the city by surprise, and Grant and his men pounded away at the place with iron-clad gunboats (one of which can still be seen today), sappers digging mines and tunnels, and just plain enduring the terrible conditions of a steamy summer Mississippi in wartime. In the end, the fortress was taken, and President Lincoln boldly proclaimed that the "Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea". The joy of victory aside, one could only imagine what look everyone really had on their faces when they afterward stared at the great river which probably had more than just water in it.
The preservation of the Union would mean that universal franchise could finally become a reality, that the frontier could be settled and bridged instead of being used a gambling chip in political debates between Northern and Southern interests, and perhaps most strongly, that those who would sail past a future Statue of Liberty could try see their new home as a beacon of what the lady represents. Say what you will about state's rights and honor, the fact is, slavery had always made any concept of liberty and freedom seem hypocritical. If the United States was going to play center stage in North America, and try to claim any sort of moral high ground (which was turning invisible after the events of 1846), it had to clean house. The American Civil War, ultimately, was about this, and Vicksburg was the place where the Union was maintained and its highest values were given currency. War is never glorious, but neither is it meaningless. Vicksburg, like other battlefields, is sacred ground.
OK, take a break if you want. This next part gets long, and a bit passionate.
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5. The Battle of Chapultepec.
This took a while for me to write. I did not want to end up sounding too negative, but in general, the Mexican-American war gets set aside as a "between them" sort of thing in Canadian classrooms, and treated as a "oh yeah, and this happened, but, you know, what's done is done" sort of thing in American classrooms. Without beating around the bush at all, I am going to out right say that the Mexican-American war was probably one of the most unjust conflicts in the history of humanity. Regardless of how we might feel today about the United States managing the lands which are now called California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico, the truth is that they were ripped out of Mexico's hands, and the Mexican landowners who did have holdings in those lands, especially in California and New Mexico, were often forced out of them cheaply, even after they pledged loyalty to the new ruling nation. Feel free to look down on my opinion, but recall that I am good company with it. Presidents Lincoln and Grant felt the same way.
By the time the opening shots were fired to start this war in 1846, another contest for territory had already taken place north of the 42nd parallel in what was known as Oregon country. After the War of 1812, Britain and the United States tried to settle territorial claims through negotiation rather than armed force, and in Oregon they agreed to settle their claims by joint occupation. Whoever settled the place more, essentially, would have the stronger claim to the land, and by the 1840's things were clearly going in favor of the Americans. Though many feared that the United States would go to war with Britain over the matter (which might have ended up with Canada being cut off from the Pacific), this never really came close to reality, and the United States could afford to focus their attention southward instead. Mexico, you see, had never really recognized Texas' independence, despite not really maintaining much of military presence north of the Rio Grande, and none at all beyond the Nueces river. Americans interested in selling the war to Congress claimed the opposite, and added that Britain was more than eager to take whatever trophies of Mexico she could, just as she was "trying to" in Oregon. The United States, they cried out, should never surrender its God-given right to the lands that stretch to the Pacific, and especially not to Britain. When such claims would fall on deaf ears, the rights of Texans were instead pleaded for.
Well, if you ask me, the Texans stood up for their rights at the Alamo, and they won their freedom for themselves. That particular event is where things start to get a bit ugly regarding this whole conflict. In those days, the Roman Catholic Church and the United States were not on the best speaking terms. Anti-Catholic bigotry had been inherited from England, including the Black Legend, which had a particularly racist undertone to it. Stated simply, Mexico invited Americans to settle Tejas and help develop it (and help deal with the Comanche, who had been raiding northern Mexico for some time), dropping their own exclusivity by allowing the settlers freedom of their Protestant faith. The existing Tejans and the new Texans built up a pretty nice place to live. The Texans, however, brought some slaves with them, in clear violation of Mexican law. In 1830, the United States offered to purchase Texas, which understandably made Mexico a bit nervous. In response, Mexico refused to allow any more American immigration into its territories (something of a historical irony), and also insisted in collecting customs duties and taxes from Tejas. By 1836, the Texans took control of the territory and won their independence.
Some wanted an independent Texas, "free of Indians, free of Catholics, and free of abolitionists who cared nothing for property rights". Fortunately, there were other great men who also wanted to see a free Texas, who did not hate Mexico, and who did not care much for slavery or Indian removal. They did, however, like all good Americans, hate taxes and import duties. These were Texans who give a great name to their state, men like Sam Houston and Davy Crocket. Sadly, their voices were pretty much ignored, and slavery, backed up by some deeply rooted prejudice, reared its ugly head. Oregon, looking like it was going to go well, and become free territory at that, had many folks in the southern states concerned that they might end up on the losing side of the numbers in Congress. Texas was a wonderful solution to this problem, and it had the added benefit of being "contested" by a nation next door that also held the keys to everything from El Paso to the Pacific Ocean. The beautiful part for them was that some northerners were willing to jump on the war wagon, because Manifest Destiny was simply too strong a call to be ignored. On March 27, 1846, General Zachary Taylor led some men to what would later become Brownsville, and started building a fort in plain view of Matamoros. On April 3, the Mexican army responded by firing on the fort.
Mexico (let's be honest here, Mexico, until recently, has never had much in the way of political stability) was not entirely united at the time, except regarding the issue of American relations. The result of this instability was that the country really never had a fighting chance against the invasion, and desertions occurred in many places. In New Mexico, the Americans were welcomed with open arms; New Mexicans had been trading with the Americans over the Santa Fe Trail for decades now. Santa Anna had to fight off invasion with a severely reduced army further south, and Chihuahua and much of the northern states easily fell without much support to back them up. Despite this, the further into Mexico the United States armed forces marched, they would also encounter more resistance among the civilian population. In California, without any support or orders from the Mexican government, the Californios heavily resisted the incursions of John C. Fremont and his men. Finally, the beginning of the end happened at Veracruz, where 12,000 Americans fought a Mexican army a quarter of their size. Present at the battle were a who's who of military celebrity: Grant, Meade, Lee, Stonewall Jackson, and Longstreet.
Central Mexico presented a new difficulty for Americans used to their climates. Unlike the lands of northern Mexico, the jungles of Veracruz were lushly tropical and nearly a third of the army became sick from malaria. On top of this, even when they would be able to break into the interior of the country, fighting would take place in elevations in excess of 8,000 feet or more. Though the army triumphed on the march to the capital, and Puebla surrendered without a fight, one last obstacle stood in the way of victory, the Fortress of Chapultepec. With their backs to the wall, the Mexicans put up one of the fiercest fights in North American history. The hill (more of a small mountain really, and trust me, it is not fun to climb even the easy way up) withstood bombardment for well over 24 hours, and when it ceased, some of the most intense fighting ever seen by the United States military took place. To this day, the battle is remembered for such intensity in the very first line of The Marines' Hymn. Even when a general surrender was ordered, the Mexicans continued fighting, including six teenage cadets. The ferocity of the battle is disputed by some American historians, to which I can only respectfully disagree. For one, I have yet to find a Marine corps historian who disputes the valor with which the Mexicans fought at the battle (Marines, after all, know the meaning of honor, and I am proud to count some as friends). Mexicans share the same spirit and love for their land that Americans and Canadians do, and like Americans and Canadians, have shed their blood when their homeland was threatened with annihilation.
Chapultepec fell. The American flag was hoisted over the castle, in plain view of the entire city. California and New Mexico had been taken, Veracruz and Mazatlan had fallen (along with the navy), and now the capital was lost. Mexico had no choice but to surrender to the United States, and under any terms they wished. The result was the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, wherein was surrendered all of California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. On February 2, 1848, at the high altar of the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, the treaty was signed.
Courtesy of the National Archives.
North America has never been the same. Aside from the obvious after effects, I included the battle itself as the primary event of the greater war, because the battle was the point at which history was truly changed, where North Americans fought one another passionately and savagely, and the last place where our nations shed each other's blood. The battle was the crux of a war that has come to symbolize so much of such a rocky relationship between these lands, replete with all the politics, racism, bigotry, and worst of all, misconceptions, that have divided people on both sides of the border (the border which was largely set by that treaty document you see there). Prejudices still exist on both sides, and in the meantime, the walls get higher and longer.
Would things have been different had certain parties had their way? Probably, but the truth is, we may never know. Some parties just wanted Texas, while others wanted everything down to the Guatemalan border. In the end, what happened, well, happened. We remember the dead on both sides, and hope and pray for a better future.
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